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Ytterbium is a chemical element with the symbol Yb and atomic number 70. It is the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series, which is the basis of the relative stability of its +2 oxidation state. However, like the other lanthanides, its most common oxidation state is +3, as in its oxide, halides, and other compounds. In aqueous solution, like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules. Because of its closed-shell electron configuration, its density and melting and boiling points differ significantly from those of most other lanthanides.

In 1878, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated from the rare earth "erbia" another independent component, which he called "ytterbia", for Ytterby, the village in Sweden near where he found the new component of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium" (in total, four elements were named after the village, the others being yttrium, terbium, and erbium). In 1907, the new earth "lutecia" was separated from ytterbia, from which the element "lutecium" (now lutetium) was extracted by Georges Urbain, Carl Auer von Welsbach, and Charles James. After some discussion, Marignac's name "ytterbium" was retained. A relatively pure sample of the metal was not obtained until 1953. At present, ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or active laser media, and less often as a gamma ray source.

Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes, which altogether are present at concentrations of 0.3 parts per million. This element is mined in China, the United States, Brazil, and India in form of the minerals monazite, euxenite, and xenotime. The ytterbium concentration is low because it is found only among many other rare-earth elements; moreover, it is among the least abundant. Once extracted and prepared, ytterbium is somewhat hazardous as an eye and skin irritant. The metal is a fire and explosion hazard.

INFO: Full form for NACB is National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for UOT is Universal Oxidation Test in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for SCMB is School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for MBBA is N-(4-methoxybenzylidene)-4-butylaniline in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for NBSC is Nitride-bonded Silicon Carbide in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for HV is High Viscosity in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for HMB is Hydroxy Methyl Butyrate in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for EIBC is Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bio-inorganic Chemistry in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for CSIB is Center for Stable Isotope Biogeochemistry in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for QNB is 3-quinuclidinyl Benzilate in Chemistry category
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Vinorelbine (NVB), sold under the brand name Navelbine among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes breast cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. It is given by injection into a vein or by mouth.

Common side effects include bone marrow suppression, pain at the site of injection, vomiting, feeling tired, numbness, and diarrhea. Other serious side effects include shortness of breath. Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. Vinorelbine is in the vinca alkaloid family of medications. It is believed to work by disrupting the normal function of microtubules and thereby stopping cell division.

Vinorelbine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1994. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

INFO: Full form for CPPD is Calcium Pyrophosphate Dehydrate in Chemistry category
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Xenon is a chemical element with the symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is a colorless, dense, odorless noble gas found in Earth's atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate, the first noble gas compound to be synthesized.

Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps, and as a general anesthetic. The first excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule (Xe2) as the lasing medium, and the earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps. Xenon is used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles and as the propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft.

Naturally occurring xenon consists of seven stable isotopes and two long-lived radioactive isotopes. More than 40 unstable xenon isotopes undergo radioactive decay, and the isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System. Radioactive xenon-135 is produced by beta decay from iodine-135 (a product of nuclear fission), and is the most significant (and unwanted) neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.

INFO: Full form for WO is Weak Oxidizer in Chemistry category
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Gold and Silver (Spanish:Oro y plata) is a 1934 Mexican drama film directed by Ramón Peón and starring Carmen Guerrero, Adolfo Girón and Alfredo del Diestro.

The film's art direction was by Fernando A. Rivero.

INFO: Full form for PVB is Projected Valence Bond in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for PVB is Pressure Vacuum Breaker in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for DCO is Decant Oil in Chemistry category
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In quantum chemistry, a natural bond orbital or NBO is a calculated bonding orbital with maximum electron density. The NBOs are one of a sequence of natural localized orbital sets that include "natural atomic orbitals" (NAO), "natural hybrid orbitals" (NHO), "natural bonding orbitals" (NBO) and "natural (semi-)localized molecular orbitals" (NLMO). These natural localized sets are intermediate between basis atomic orbitals (AO) and molecular orbitals (MO):

Natural (localized) orbitals are used in computational chemistry to calculate the distribution of electron density in atoms and in bonds between atoms. They have the "maximum-occupancy character" in localized 1-center and 2-center regions of the molecule. Natural bond orbitals (NBOs) include the highest possible percentage of the electron density, ideally close to 2.000, providing the most accurate possible “natural Lewis structure” of ψ. A high percentage of electron density (denoted %-ρL), often found to be >99% for common organic molecules, correspond with an accurate natural Lewis structure.

The concept of natural orbitals was first introduced by Per-Olov Löwdin in 1955, to describe the unique set of orthonormal 1-electron functions that are intrinsic to the N-electron wavefunction.

INFO: Full form for NADP is Nicotinamide Adenosine Dinucleotide Phosphate in Chemistry category
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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine nucleobase and the other nicotinamide. NAD exists in two forms: an oxidized and reduced form, abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH (H for hydrogen) respectively.

In metabolism, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. The cofactor is, therefore, found in two forms in cells: NAD+ is an oxidizing agent – it accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes reduced. This reaction forms NADH, which can then be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. However, it is also used in other cellular processes, most notably as a substrate of enzymes in adding or removingchemical groups to or from, respectively, proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery.

In organisms, NAD can be synthesized from simple building-blocks (de novo) from either tryptophan or aspartic acid, each a case of an amino acid; alternatively, more complex components of the coenzymes are taken up from nutritive compounds such as niacin; similar compounds are produced by reactions that break down the structure of NAD, providing a salvage pathway that “recycles” them back into their respective active form.

Some NAD is converted into the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP); its chemistry largely parallels that of NAD, though predominantly its role is as a cofactor in anabolic metabolism.

The NAD+ chemical species’ superscripted addition sign reflects the formal charge on one of its nitrogen atoms; this species is actually a singly charged anion — carrying a (negative) ionic charge of 1 — under conditions of physiological pH. NADH, in contrast, is a doubly charged anion.

INFO: Full form for FIT is Fluid Impingement Technology in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for ESP is Emulsion Splitting Process in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for DCM is Di-chloromethane in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for NPL is Neutral Protamine Lyspro in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for PAN is Phosphoric Acetic Nitric in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for PNG is Pipeline Natural Gas in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for AMU is Atomic Mass Unit in Chemistry category
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The U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, generally referred to as the Chemical Safety Board or CSB, is an independent U.S. federal agency charged with investigating industrial chemical accidents. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., the agency's board members are appointed by the president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The CSB conducts root cause investigations of chemical accidents at fixed industrial facilities.

INFO: Full form for NU is Natural Uranium in Chemistry category
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Ruthenium is a chemical element with the symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals. Russian-born scientist of Baltic-German ancestry Karl Ernst Claus discovered the element in 1844 at Kazan State University and named ruthenium in honor of Russia. Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component of platinum ores; the annual production has risen from about 19 tonnes in 2009 to some 35.5 tonnes in 2017. Most ruthenium produced is used in wear-resistant electrical contacts and thick-film resistors. A minor application for ruthenium is in platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst. A new application of ruthenium is as the capping layer for extreme ultraviolet photomasks. Ruthenium is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa.

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.

Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form (native metals). This led to very early human use in several regions, from c. 8000 BC. Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c. 5000 BC; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC.

In the Roman era, copper was mined principally on Cyprus, the origin of the name of the metal, from aes сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to сuprum (Latin). Coper (Old English) and copper were derived from this, the later spelling first used around 1530.

Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite, malachite, and turquoise, and have been used widely and historically as pigments.

Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris (or patina). Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives.

Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone. The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight.

INFO: Full form for VU is Volume Units in Chemistry category
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N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) is a highly reliable carcinogen, mutagen, and teratogen. NMU is an alkylating agent, and exhibits its toxicity by transferring its methyl group to nucleobases in nucleic acids, which can lead to AT:GC transition mutations.

NMU is the traditional precursor in the synthesis of diazomethane. It has the potentially advantageous property that the stoichiometric byproducts formed are water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia, which are innocuous or easily removed. However, because it is unstable at temperatures beyond 20 °C and somewhat shock-sensitive, it has become obsolete for this purpose and replaced by other N-nitroso compounds: (N-methyl)nitrosamides and nitrosamines. Most chemical supply houses have stopped carrying it.

Acute exposure to NMU in humans can result in skin and eye irritation, headache, nausea, and vomiting. NMU is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals (IARC 1972, 1978, 1987). Various cancers induced in animal models include: squamous cell carcinomas of the forestomach, sarcomas and gliomas of the brain, adenocarcinomas of the pancreas, mammary carcinomas, leukemia, and lymphomas. However, the actual potential for human exposure is quite limited, as the chemical is not produced or used in large quantities

NMU is teratogenic and embryotoxic, resulting in craniofacial (cleft palate) and skeletal defects, fetal growth retardation, and increased fetal resorption. Exposure to NMU during pre-implantation, post-implantation, organogenesis, or by paternal exposure can result in these effects.

INFO: Full form for HSC is Hydrogen Synthesiser Cannon in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for FTM is Fluid Thioglycolate Medium in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for FED is Free Energy Difference in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for EBT is Eriochrome Black T Indicator in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for NPS is Network Protein Sequence in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for WSS is Water Soluble Stabilizer in Chemistry category
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INFO: Full form for SRMS is Steam Reactivity Measurement System in Chemistry category
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