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The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also known as the metal–oxide–silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS), is a type of insulated-gate field-effect transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a semiconductor, typically silicon. The voltage of the covered gate determines the electrical conductivity of the device; this ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.

The MOSFET was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and first presented in 1960. It is the basic building block of modern electronics, and the most frequently manufactured device in history, with an estimated total of 13 sextillion (1.3×1022) MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018. It is the dominant semiconductor device in digital and analog integrated circuits (ICs), and the most common power device. It is a compact transistor that has been miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of applications, revolutionizing the electronics industry and the world economy, and being central to the digital revolution, silicon age and information age. MOSFET scaling and miniaturization has been driving the rapid exponential growth of electronic semiconductor technology since the 1960s, and enables high-density ICs such as memory chips and microprocessors. The MOSFET is considered the "workhorse" of the electronics industry.

A key advantage of a MOSFET is that it requires almost no input current to control the load current, when compared with bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). In an enhancement mode MOSFET, voltage applied to the gate terminal can increase the conductivity from the "normally off" state. In a depletion mode MOSFET, voltage applied at the gate can reduce the conductivity from the "normally on" state. MOSFETs are also capable of high scalability, with increasing miniaturization, and can be easily scaled down to smaller dimensions. They also have faster switching speed (ideal for digital signals), much smaller size, consume significantly less power, and allow much higher density (ideal for large-scale integration), compared to BJTs. MOSFETs are also cheaper and have relatively simple processing steps, resulting in high manufacturing yield.

MOSFETs can either be manufactured as part of MOS integrated circuit chips or as discrete MOSFET devices (such as a power MOSFET), and can take the form of single-gate or multi-gate transistors. Since MOSFETs can be made with either p-type or n-type semiconductors (PMOS or NMOS logic, respectively), complementary pairs of MOSFETs can be used to make switching circuits with very low power consumption: CMOS (Complementary MOS) logic.

The name "metal–oxide–semiconductor" (MOS) typically refers to a metal gate, oxide insulation, and semiconductor (typically silicon). However, the "metal" in the name MOSFET is sometimes a misnomer, because the gate material can also be a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Along with oxide, different dielectric materials can also be used with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages. The MOS capacitor is also part of the MOSFET structure.

INFO: Full form for MDA is Multiple Diode Array in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for UT is Ultrasonic Testing in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for UT is Upper Threshold in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for UT is Ultrasonic Test in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for ST is Special Tuning in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for ST is Special Technology in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for MDU is Modular Dispensing Unit in Electronics category
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The breakdown voltage of an insulator is the minimum voltage that causes a portion of an insulator to become electrically conductive.

For diodes, the breakdown voltage is the minimum reverse voltage that makes the diode conduct appreciably in reverse. Some devices (such as TRIACs) also have a forward breakdown voltage.

INFO: Full form for GILD is Gas Immersion Laser Doping in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for OCDP is Over Current Discharge Protection in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for WBFH is Wideband Frequency Hopping in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for SLCO is Sapphire Loaded Cavity Oscillator in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for BEOL is Back End of Line in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for CNDO is Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap in Electronics category
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Forward-looking infrared (FLIR) cameras, typically used on military and civilian aircraft, use a thermographic camera that senses infrared radiation.

The sensors installed in forward-looking infrared cameras, as well as those of other thermal imaging cameras, use detection of infrared radiation, typically emitted from a heat source (thermal radiation), to create an image assembled for video output.

They can be used to help pilots and drivers steer their vehicles at night and in fog, or to detect warm objects against a cooler background. The wavelength of infrared that thermal imaging cameras detect is 3 to 12 μm and differs significantly from that of night vision, which operates in the visible light and near-infrared ranges (0.4 to 1.0 μm).

INFO: Full form for DFMEA is Failure Mode and Effects Analyses Done At The Design Stage in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for AISCM is Asynchronous Induction Squirrel Cage Motor in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for IPQC is International Pulse Quality Committee in Electronics category
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Digital Radio Frequency Memory (DRFM) is an electronic method for digitally capturing and retransmitting RF signals. DRFM systems are typically used in radar jamming, although applications in cellular communications are becoming more common.

INFO: Full form for EFLI is Earth Fault Loop Impedance in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for WRIM is Wound Rotor Induction Motor in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for VINB is Voltage Input B in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for CTEM is Conventional Transmission Electron Microscopy in Electronics category
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In computer data storage, partial-response maximum-likelihood (PRML) is a method for recovering the digital data from the weak analog read-back signal picked up by the head of a magnetic disk drive or tape drive. PRML was introduced to recover data more reliably or at a greater areal-density than earlier simpler schemes such as peak-detection. These advances are important because most of the digital data in the world is stored using magnetic storage on hard disk or tape drives.

Ampex introduced PRML in a tape drive in 1984. IBM introduced PRML in a disk drive in 1990 and also coined the acronym PRML. Many advances have taken place since the initial introduction. Recent read/write channels operate at much higher data-rates, are fully adaptive, and, in particular, include the ability to handle nonlinear signal distortion and non-stationary, colored, data-dependent noise (PDNP or NPML).

Partial response refers to the fact that part of the response to an individual bit may occur at one sample instant while other parts fall in other sample instants. Maximum-likelihood refers to the detector finding the bit-pattern most likely to have been responsible for the read-back waveform.

INFO: Full form for ETKA is Elektronischer Teilekatalog in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for SFJ is Single Fibre Jitter in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for STLA is Short-circuit Testing Liaison Agreement in Electronics category
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A single point of failure (SPOF) is a part of a system that, if it fails, will stop the entire system from working. SPOFs are undesirable in any system with a goal of high availability or reliability, be it a business practice, software application, or other industrial system.

INFO: Full form for KAIC is Thousand Ampere Interrupting Capacity in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for KAIC is Kilo-ampere Interrupting Capacity in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for AAOI is Analysis of Applied Optoelectronics Inc in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for NETD is Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference in Electronics category
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Negative-bias temperature instability (NBTI) is a key reliability issue in MOSFETs, a type of transistor aging. NBTI manifests as an increase in the threshold voltage and consequent decrease in drain current and transconductance of a MOSFET. The degradation is often approximated by a power-law dependence on time. It is of immediate concern in p-channel MOS devices (pMOS), since they almost always operate with negative gate-to-source voltage; however, the very same mechanism also affects nMOS transistors when biased in the accumulation regime, i.e. with a negative bias applied to the gate.

More specifically, over time positive charges become trapped at the oxide-semiconductor boundary underneath the gate of a MOSFET. These positive charges partially cancel the negative gate voltage without contributing to conduction through the channel as electron holes in the semiconductor are supposed to. When the gate voltage is removed, the trapped charges dissipate over a time scale of milliseconds to hours. The problem has become more acute as transistors have shrunk, as there is less averaging of the effect over a large gate area. Thus, different transistors experience different amounts of NBTI, defeating standard circuit design techniques for tolerating manufacturing variability which depend on the close matching of adjacent transistors.

NBTI has become significant for portable electronics because it interacts badly with two common power-saving techniques: reduced operating voltages and clock gating. With lower operating voltages, the NBTI-induced threshold voltage change is a larger fraction of the logic voltage and disrupts operations. When a clock is gated off, transistors stop switching and NBTI effects accumulate much more rapidly. When the clock is re-enabled, the transistor thresholds have changed and the circuit may not operate. Some low-power designs switch to a low-frequency clock rather than stopping completely in order to mitigate NBTI effects.

INFO: Full form for CATR is Compact Antenna Test Range in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for GGGT is Gaussian Gain Gaussian Threshold in Electronics category
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A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a power superhighway or an electrical superhighway) uses direct current (DC) for the transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current (AC) systems.

Most HVDC links typically use voltages between 100 kV and 800 kV. However, a 1,100 kV link in China was completed in 2019 over a distance of 3,300 km (2,100 mi) with a power capacity of 12 GW. With this dimension, intercontinental connections become possible which could help to deal with the fluctuations of wind power and photovoltaics.

HVDC allows power transmission between AC transmission systems that are not synchronized. Since the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle between source and load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power. HVDC also allows transfer of power between grid systems running at different frequencies, such as 50 Hz and 60 Hz. This improves the stability and economy of each grid, by allowing exchange of power between incompatible networks.

The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in the 1930s in Sweden (ASEA) and in Germany. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet Union in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira, and a 100 kV, 20 MW system between Gotland and mainland Sweden in 1954. Before the Chinese project of 2019, the longest HVDC link in the world was the Rio Madeira link in Brazil, which consists of two bipoles of ±600 kV, 3150 MW each, connecting Porto Velho in the state of Rondônia to the São Paulo area with a length of more than 2,500 km (1,600 mi).

INFO: Full form for RITD is Resonant Interband Tunnel Diode in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for NXC is Netlinx Control Card in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for VAIO is Video/audio Input/output in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for UVR is Universal Regulator in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for UVR is Under-voltage Relay in Electronics category
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INFO: Full form for ACGI is Adaptive Control Grid Interpolation in Electronics category
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